Home, school, and community violence exposure and emotional and conduct problems among low-income adolescents: the moderating role of age and sex.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to assess whether violence exposure is associated with emotional/conduct problems, when adjusting for confounders/covariates and controlling for comorbidity, and to investigate interactions between violence exposure and sex and/or age. METHODS: This cross-sectional study evaluated a community-based sample of 669 in-school 11-15-year-olds. A three-stage probabilistic sampling plan included a random selection of census units, eligible households, and target child. Multivariable logistic regression investigated the effect of severe physical punishment by parents, peer victimization at school, and community violence on the study outcomes (adolescent-reported emotional/conduct problems identified by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire/SDQ) when controlling for confounders (resilience, parental emotional warmth, maternal education/unemployment/anxiety/depression) and covariates (age, sex, stressful life events, parental rejection). RESULTS: Considering interactions, emotional problems were associated with community violence victimization among girls, while conduct problems were associated with severe physical punishment among the younger, suffering peer aggression among the oldest, bullying victimization among girls, and witnessing community violence among boys. Desensitization (less emotional problems with greater violence exposure) was noted among the youngest exposed to severe physical punishment and the oldest who witnessed community violence. CONCLUSION: Age and sex are moderators of the association between violence exposure and emotional/conduct problems. Interventions at local health units, schools, and communities could reduce the use of harsh physical punishment as a parental educational method, help adolescents deal with peer aggression at school and keep them out of the streets by increasing the usual five hours in school per day and making free sports and cultural/leisure activities available near their homes.

Early vulnerabilities for psychiatric disorders in elementary schoolchildren from four Brazilian regions.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the study is to identify early vulnerabilities for psychiatric disorders among Brazilian elementary school children, controlling for familial and community adversities. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study examining the association between child psychiatric disorders and potential early vulnerabilities (disability, low intellectual quotient, and negative dimensions of the temperament trait self-directedness (low resourcefulness, low purposefulness, low enlightened second nature), controlling for the potential confounders: familial and community adversities. SAMPLE: Four probabilistic samples of second-to-sixth grade students from public schools in four towns from different Brazilian regions (N = 1620). The following instruments were applied: the K-SADS-PL (to assess child/adolescent psychiatric disorders); the Ten-Question Screen (to measure child disability); three structured questions used as proxy of self-directedness; and the reduced version of the WISC-III to measure IQ. To evaluate familial/community adversities: Self-Report Questionnaire-SRQ-20 (to assess maternal/primary caretaker anxiety/depression); questions derived from structured questionnaires (to measure child abuse, marital physical violence, neighborhood violence); Brazilian Association of Research Companies questionnaire (to evaluate poverty/socioeconomic status). Trained psychologists interviewed mothers/primary caretakers and evaluated children/adolescents individually. RESULTS: A final logistic regression model showed that children/adolescents with low resourcefulness, low purposefulness, low enlightened second nature, lower IQ and disability were more likely to present any child psychiatric disorders. CONCLUSION: Early vulnerabilities such as low IQ, presence of disability, and dimensions of temperament were associated with psychiatric disorders among Brazilian elementary school children, after controlling for familial and ecological confounders. These early vulnerabilities should be considered in mental health prevention/intervention programs in low-middle-income countries like Brazil.

Toronto Alexithymia Scale: Adaptation of the Brazilian Version to Low-Educated Adults / Toronto Alexithymia Scale: Adaptação da Versão Brasileira para Adultos de Baixa Escolaridade / Toronto Alexithymia Scale: Adaptación de la Versión Brasileña para Adultos con Baja Escolaridad

Abstract: For the purpose of studying Alexithymia in low-educated adults, we intend to adapt the Brazilian version of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-26) and to verify its internal consistency. With that aim, we translated the original TAS-26 (English) to Portuguese, adopting a colloquial language, without content distortion. An exploratory qualitative study interviewed 50 women (38-65 years, education <9 years) and identified comprehension difficulties in 22 items, that needed adaptation. A professional translator performed the back-translation of the adapted TAS-26, that was applied to a new sample of women (90 with chronical pain and 90 without pain, 38-65 years, education <9 years) to evaluate its internal consistency. Only four items (1/2/3/16) of the pre-existing Brazilian version (appropriate to university students) did not require modification. The internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) was satisfactory for total score (0.65) and elevated for factor 1 (0.87). The adapted Brazilian version of TAS-26 is appropriate to low-educated adults.

Resumo: Com objetivo de estudar a alexitimia em indivíduos adultos de baixa escolaridade, decidimos adaptar a versão brasileira da Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-26) e verificar sua consistência interna. Para isso, traduzimos a TAS-26 original (inglês) para o português, com linguagem coloquial, sem alteração de conteúdo. Em estudo exploratório qualitativo foram entrevistadas 50 mulheres (38-65 anos, escolaridade <9 anos) e identificamos dificuldade de compreensão em 22 itens, que necessitaram de adaptação. Após retro-tradução feita por tradutor profissional, a TAS-26 adaptada foi então aplicada a nova amostra de mulheres (90 com dor crônica e 90 sem dor, 38-65 anos, escolaridade <9 anos) para avaliar sua consistência interna. Apenas quatro itens (1/2/3/16) da versão brasileira pré-existente (apropriada a universitários) não sofreram modificação. A consistência interna (alfa de Cronbach) foi satisfatória na pontuação total (0,65) e elevada no fator 1 (0,87). A versão brasileira da TAS-26 adaptada é adequada a indivíduos adultos de baixa escolaridade.

Resumen: Con objeto de estudiar la Alexitimia en adultos con bajo nivel de educación, buscamos adaptar la versión brasileña de la Escala de Alexitimia de Toronto (TAS-26) y comprobar su consistencia interna. Para esto, traducimos la TAS-26 original (inglés) al portugués, con la adopción de un lenguaje sencillo, sin cambiar el contenido. Una encuesta cualitativa entrevistó a 50 mujeres (38-65 años, escolaridad <9 años) e identificamos dificultad de comprensión sobre 22 puntos, que demandaron adaptaciones. Tras la retro-traducción por un traductor profesional, la TAS-26 adaptada fue aplicada a una nueva muestra de mujeres (90 con dolor crónico y 90 sin dolor, 38-65 años, escolaridad <9 años) para evaluar su consistencia interna. Sólo cuatro ítems (1/2/3/16) de la versión brasileña preexistente (apropiada para universitarios) no fueron cambiados. La consistencia interna (alfa de Cronbach) fue satisfactoria en la puntuación total (0,65) y alta en el factor 1 (0,87). La versión brasileña de la TAS-26 adaptada es adecuada para adultos con bajo nivel de escolaridad.

Family functioning in adolescents with major depressive disorder: a comparative stud / Dinâmica familiar de adolescentes com transtorno depressivo maior: um estudo comparativo

The goal of this study was to evaluate family functioning in two groups of adolescents: adolescents with major depressive disorder (cases) and adolescents with no psychiatric disorders (controls). A total of 18 adolescents (13-18 years) and their first-degree relatives (N = 70) were evaluated. Cases and controls were matched for the adolescent's age, gender, level of education, number and age of siblings, parental marital status, and economic condition. A family therapist conducted the Structured Family Interview with each family to evaluate nine family functioning dimensions (communication, rules, roles, leadership, conflict, aggressiveness, affect, individuation, and integration). The interview transcripts were independently rated by two different family therapists blinded to case-control status, i.e., without knowing whether they were evaluating cases or controls. The raters scored all interview items using a standardized coding system (overall agreement = 83.5%), and when compared to the controls, the cases showed lower mean scores in seven dimensions, particularly affect (p = 0.0078). There was no difference between cases and controls regarding the dimensions rules and leadership. Difficulty in expressing affect in parent-child relationship was the main disturbance in the families of depressive adolescents evaluated.

Avaliar a dinâmica familiar em dois grupos de adolescentes, um com transtorno depressivo maior (casos) e outro sem transtornos psiquiátricos (controles), totalizando 18 adolescentes (13-18 anos) acompanhados de seus pais e irmãos (N = 70). Pareou-se casos e controles segundo idade, sexo, escolaridade, número e idade dos irmãos, estado civil parental e condição econômica. Uma terapeuta familiar aplicou a Entrevista Familiar Estruturada a cada família, avaliando nove dimensões da dinâmica familiar (comunicação, normas, papéis, liderança, conflito, agressividade, afeto, individualização, integração). As sessões transcritas foram independentemente avaliadas por duas outras terapeutas familiares que desconheciam se as famílias constituíam casos ou controles. A pontuação dos itens da entrevista baseou-se em um sistema de codificação padronizado (concordância geral = 83,5%). Comparados aos controles, os casos obtiveram médias de escores mais baixas em sete dimensões, especialmente afeto (p = 0,0078); não houve diferença nas dimensões normas e liderança. A dificuldade em expressar afeto nas relações entre pais e filhos foi a principal disfunção nas famílias dos adolescentes deprimidos avaliados.

Family functioning in adolescents with major depressive disorder: A comparative study / Dinâmica familiar de adolescentes com transtorno depressivo maior: um estudo comparativo

The goal of this study was to evaluate family functioning in two groups of adolescents: adolescents with major depressive disorder (cases) and adolescents with no psychiatric disorders (controls). A total of 18 adolescents (13-18 years) and their first-degree relatives (N = 70) were evaluated. Cases and controls were matched for the adolescent's age, gender, level of education, number and age of siblings, parental marital status, and economic condition. A family therapist conducted the Structured Family Interview with each family to evaluate nine family functioning dimensions (communication, rules, roles, leadership, conflict, aggressiveness, affect, individuation, and integration). The interview transcripts were independently rated by two different family therapists blinded to case-control status, i.e., without knowing whether they were evaluating cases or controls. The raters scored all interview items using a standardized coding system (overall agreement = 83.5%), and when compared to the controls, the cases showed lower mean scores in seven dimensions, particularly affect (p = 0.0078). There was no difference between cases and controls regarding the dimensions rules and leadership. Difficulty in expressing affect in parent-child relationship was the main disturbance in the families of depressive adolescents evaluated.(AU)

Avaliar a dinâmica familiar em dois grupos de adolescentes, um com transtorno depressivo maior (casos) e outro sem transtornos psiquiátricos (controles), totalizando 18 adolescentes (13-18 anos) acompanhados de seus pais e irmãos (N = 70). Pareou-se casos e controles segundo idade, sexo, escolaridade, número e idade dos irmãos, estado civil parental e condição econômica. Uma terapeuta familiar aplicou a Entrevista Familiar Estruturada a cada família, avaliando nove dimensões da dinâmica familiar (comunicação, normas, papéis, liderança, conflito, agressividade, afeto, individualização, integração). As sessões transcritas foram independentemente avaliadas por duas outras terapeutas familiares que desconheciam se as famílias constituíam casos ou controles. A pontuação dos itens da entrevista baseou-se em um sistema de codificação padronizado (concordância geral = 83,5%). Comparados aos controles, os casos obtiveram médias de escores mais baixas em sete dimensões, especialmente afeto (p = 0,0078); não houve diferença nas dimensões normas e liderança. A dificuldade em expressar afeto nas relações entre pais e filhos foi a principal disfunção nas famílias dos adolescentes deprimidos avaliados.(AU)

[Life-long domestic violence against women: prevalence and immediate impact on health, work, and family]. / Violência conjugal física contra a mulher na vida: prevalência e impacto imediato na saúde, trabalho e família.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the lifetime prevalence of domestic violence against women (DVAW) in a low-income urban community and evaluate the immediate impact of DVAW on health, work, and family life. METHODS: The present cross-sectional study was carried out in the city of Embu (state of São Paulo, Brazil) as part of an international multicenter project (World Studies of Abuse in the Family Environment, WorldSAFE). A probabilistic sample of census sector-based clusters including all eligible households identified was used. A total of 784 women (age 16-49 years) with at least one child younger than 18 years and a lifetime resident husband/partner were included. We evaluated the occurrence of any kind of DVAW (slapping, kicking, hitting, beating, threatening to use or using a weapon, other aggressions mentioned spontaneously), of severe DVAW (same items, except slapping and other aggressions informed spontaneously), and of immediate impacts on the health, work, and family of the victims. RESULTS: The prevalence of DVAW was 26.0% for any kind of violence and 18.5% for severe DVAW. Among the victims of any kind of DVAW, 38.7% judged that they needed medical care, 4.4% were hospitalized, 18.1% were incapacitated for work (paid work or household chores), 51.5% left their partner due to the aggression and 66.7% had children who witnessed the violence. For severe violence, these rates were 51.0, 5.5, 23.4, 59.3 and 75.9%, respectively. Shame and fear of retaliation obstructed access to medical care. CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of DVAW is high in the studied community and produces immediate impacts on the victim's health, work, and family life. These impacts decrease the victim's ability to look for help and hinder the breaking of the cycle of violence.

Violência conjugal física contra a mulher na vida: prevalência e impacto imediato na saúde, trabalho e família / Life-long domestic violence against women: prevalence and immediate impact on health, work, and family

Objetivos: Estimar a prevalência de violência conjugal física contra a mulher ao longo da vida (VCFM) em uma comunidade urbana de baixa renda e avaliar o seu impacto imediato na saúde, trabalho e vida familiar. Métodos: O presente estudo de corte transversal foi realizado em Embu, Estado de São Paulo, como componente do projeto multicêntrico internacional World Studies of Abuse in the Family Environment (WorldSAFE). Foi utilizada uma amostra probabilística de conglomerados derivados de setores censitários, incluindo todos os domicílios elegíveis identificados em cada um deles. Participaram 784 mulheres (16 a 49 anos) com pelo menos um filho menor de 18 anos e marido/companheiro residente (ao longo da vida). Foi avaliada a ocorrência de algum tipo de VCFM (tapa, chute, soco, espancamento, uso/ameaça de uso de arma, outras agressões físicas espontaneamente referidas), de VCFM grave (mesmos itens, exceto tapa e outras agressões referidas) e de impactos imediatos na saúde, trabalho e vida familiar das vítimas. Resultados: A prevalência de VCFM foi de 26,0 por cento para algum tipo de violência e de 18,5 por cento para violência grave. Entre as vítimas de algum tipo de VFCM, 38,7 por cento julgaram necessitar cuidados médicos, 4,4 por cento foram hospitalizadas, 18,1 por cento ficaram incapacitadas para o trabalho (remunerado ou doméstico), 51,5 por cento separaram-se devido às agressões e 66,7 por cento tiveram filhos testemunhando a violência. Para a violência grave, essas taxas foram de 51,0, 5,5, 23,4, 59,3 e 75,9 por cento, respectivamente. A vergonha e o medo de represália por parte do companheiro dificultaram o acesso à assistência médica. Conclusões: A VCFM é frequente na comunidade estudada e produz impactos imediatos na saúde, trabalho e vida familiar das vítimas. Esses impactos diminuem a capacidade da vítima de buscar socorro e dificultam a interrupção do ciclo da violência.

Objectives: To estimate the lifetime prevalence of domestic violence against women (DVAW) in a low-income urban community and evaluate the immediate impact of DVAW on health, work, and family life. Methods: The present cross-sectional study was carried out in the city of Embu (state of São Paulo, Brazil) as part of an international multicenter project (World Studies of Abuse in the Family Environment, WorldSAFE). A probabilistic sample of census sector-based clusters including all eligible households identified was used. A total of 784 women (age 16-49 years) with at least one child younger than 18 years and a lifetime resident husband/partner were included. We evaluated the occurrence of any kind of DVAW (slapping, kicking, hitting, beating, threatening to use or using a weapon, other aggressions mentioned spontaneously), of severe DVAW (same items, except slapping and other aggressions informed spontaneously), and of immediate impacts on the health, work, and family of the victims. Results: The prevalence of DVAW was 26.0 percent for any kind of violence and 18.5 percent for severe DVAW. Among the victims of any kind of DVAW, 38.7 percent judged that they needed medical care, 4.4 percent were hospitalized, 18.1 percent were incapacitated for work (paid work or household chores), 51.5 percent left their partner due to the aggression and 66.7 percent had children who witnessed the violence. For severe violence, these rates were 51.0, 5.5, 23.4, 59.3 and 75.9 percent, respectively. Shame and fear of retaliation obstructed access to medical care. Conclusions: The frequency of DVAW is high in the studied community and produces immediate impacts on the victim's health, work, and family life. These impacts decrease the victim's ability to look for help and hinder the breaking of the cycle of violence.

Exposição à violência como risco para o surgimento ou a continuidade de comportamento antissocial em adolescentes da região metropolitana de São Paulo / Exposure to violence as a risk for onset or continuity of antisocial behavior in adolescents from the outs kirts of Sao Paulo / Exposición a la violencia como riesgo para el surgimiento o continuidad de comportamiento anti-social en adolescentes de la región metropolitana de São Paulo

A exposição à violência é um conhecido fator de risco para o comportamento antissocial. O objetivo do estudo foi investigar a associação entre exposição à violência e o desenvolvimento de dois perfis psicopatológicos de comportamento antissocial em adolescentes da periferia de São Paulo. Trata-se de um estudo longitudinal cuja amostra foi composta por 93 adolescentes (11-18 anos) que em 2002 apresentavam problemas de saúde mental e que foram reavaliados em 2007. O desfecho clínico investigado é o comportamento antissocial em nível clínico/limítrofe na escala de externalização do Child Behavior Checklist. Os fatores de risco foram a exposição à violência urbana e doméstica, segundo o questionário de eventos traumáticos. A violência doméstica mostrou-se como único fator relevante para a manutenção do comportamento antissocial, enquanto dois fatores relativos à violência urbana (ter amigo que foi estuprado e/ou ferido com faca) mostraram-se associados ao surgimento do comportamento antissocial. Concluiu-se que o ambiente familiar e uma comunidade violenta parecem ser modelos para a manutenção e o desenvolvimento de comportamentos violentos entre adolescentes.

The exposure to violence is a known risk factor for antisocial behavior. The objective of the study was to investigate the association between exposure to violence and development of two psychopathological profiles of antisocial behavior in adolescents from the outskirts of Sao Paulo. The design of the investigation was a cohort study with a sample composed by 93 adolescents (11-18 years) diagnosed with mental health problems at baseline in 2002 were reassessed in 2007. The investigated clinical outcome was the antisocial behavior at clinical or borderline level scores on the externalizing problem scale of the Child Behavior-Checklist. The risk factors were the exposure to urban and intrafamilial violence, according to the Questionnaire of Traumatic Events. The intrafamilial violence was the only relevant factor which predicted continuation of antisocial behavior at follow-up, while two factors related to urban violence (having a friend who was raped and/or injured with a knife) were associated with the onset of antisocial behavior. It was concluded that the family environment and a violent community are important influences to consider in the continuation and development of violent behavior among adolescents.

La exposição a la violencia es un factor de riesgo conocido para el comportamiento anti-social. El objetivo del estudio foi investigar la asociación entre exposición a la violencia y el desarrollo de dos perfiles psicopatológicos de comportamiento anti-social en adolescentes de la periferia de São Paulo. El diseño de la investigación fue un estudio longitudinal cuya muestra fué formada por 93 adolescentes (11-18 años) que en 2002 presentaban problemas de salud mental y fueron reavaliados en 2007. Los resultados mostraron comportamiento anti-social en nivel clínico/limítrofe en la escala de externalización del Child Behavior Checklist. Los factores de riesgo fueron la exposición a la violencia urbana y doméstica, según el cuestionario de eventos traumáticos. La violencia doméstica se mostró como único factor relevante para el mantenimiento del comportamiento anti-social, mientras que dos factores relativos a la violencia urbana (tener amigo que fué violado y/o herido con arma blanca) se mostraron asociados al surgimiento del comportamiento anti-social. Se concluye que el ambiente familiar y La violencia en la comunidad parecen ser modelos para el mantenimiento y desarrollo de comportamientos violentos entre adolescentes.

Exposição à violência como risco para o surgimento ou a continuidade de comportamento antissocial em adolescentes da região metropolitana de São Paulo / Exposure to violence as a risk for onset or continuity of antisocial behavior in adolescents from the outs kirts of Sao Paulo / Exposición a la violencia como riesgo para el surgimiento o continuidad de comportamiento anti-social en adolescentes de la región metropolitana de São Paulo

A exposição à violência é um conhecido fator de risco para o comportamento antissocial. O objetivo do estudo foi investigar a associação entre exposição à violência e o desenvolvimento de dois perfis psicopatológicos de comportamento antissocial em adolescentes da periferia de São Paulo. Trata-se de um estudo longitudinal cuja amostra foi composta por 93 adolescentes (11-18 anos) que em 2002 apresentavam problemas de saúde mental e que foram reavaliados em 2007. O desfecho clínico investigado é o comportamento antissocial em nível clínico/limítrofe na escala de externalização do Child Behavior Checklist. Os fatores de risco foram a exposição à violência urbana e doméstica, segundo o questionário de eventos traumáticos. A violência doméstica mostrou-se como único fator relevante para a manutenção do comportamento antissocial, enquanto dois fatores relativos à violência urbana (ter amigo que foi estuprado e/ou ferido com faca) mostraram-se associados ao surgimento do comportamento antissocial. Concluiu-se que o ambiente familiar e uma comunidade violenta parecem ser modelos para a manutenção e o desenvolvimento de comportamentos violentos entre adolescentes.(AU)

The exposure to violence is a known risk factor for antisocial behavior. The objective of the study was to investigate the association between exposure to violence and development of two psychopathological profiles of antisocial behavior in adolescents from the outskirts of Sao Paulo. The design of the investigation was a cohort study with a sample composed by 93 adolescents (11-18 years) diagnosed with mental health problems at baseline in 2002 were reassessed in 2007. The investigated clinical outcome was the antisocial behavior at clinical or borderline level scores on the externalizing problem scale of the Child Behavior-Checklist. The risk factors were the exposure to urban and intrafamilial violence, according to the Questionnaire of Traumatic Events. The intrafamilial violence was the only relevant factor which predicted continuation of antisocial behavior at follow-up, while two factors related to urban violence (having a friend who was raped and/or injured with a knife) were associated with the onset of antisocial behavior. It was concluded that the family environment and a violent community are important influences to consider in the continuation and development of violent behavior among adolescents.(AU)

La exposição a la violencia es un factor de riesgo conocido para el comportamiento anti-social. El objetivo del estudio foi investigar la asociación entre exposición a la violencia y el desarrollo de dos perfiles psicopatológicos de comportamiento anti-social en adolescentes de la periferia de São Paulo. El diseño de la investigación fue un estudio longitudinal cuya muestra fué formada por 93 adolescentes (11-18 años) que en 2002 presentaban problemas de salud mental y fueron reavaliados en 2007. Los resultados mostraron comportamiento anti-social en nivel clínico/limítrofe en la escala de externalización del Child Behavior Checklist. Los factores de riesgo fueron la exposición a la violencia urbana y doméstica, según el cuestionario de eventos traumáticos. La violencia doméstica se mostró como único factor relevante para el mantenimiento del comportamiento anti-social, mientras que dos factores relativos a la violencia urbana (tener amigo que fué violado y/o herido con arma blanca) se mostraron asociados al surgimiento del comportamiento anti-social. Se concluye que el ambiente familiar y La violencia en la comunidad parecen ser modelos para el mantenimiento y desarrollo de comportamientos violentos entre adolescentes.(AU)

Measuring child exposure to violence and mental health reactions in epidemiological studies: challenges and current issues / Criança, violência e saúde: desafios e questões atuais

Este artigo examina os desafios e perspectivas atuais envolvidos na mensuração da exposição a diferentes tipos de violência e problemas de saúde mental em crianças e adolescentes. Instrumentos padronizados apropriados para estudos epidemiológicos, selecionados com base em sua relevância na literatura, são brevemente descritos e comentados. A avaliação de exposição à violência em crianças pode dizer respeito a um evento específico (como sequestro) ou um contexto específico (como guerra) ou mesmo um determinado tipo de exposição (como violência física intrafamiliar). A avaliação da saúde mental infantil após a exposição à violência tradicionalmente concentrou-se na avaliação do transtorno de estresse pós-traumático (TEPT) - freqüentemente avaliado através de escalas não-diagnósticas. Porém, outras reações psicológicas podem ocorrer e instrumentos que podem ser usados para avaliar estas reações também são descritos neste artigo. Dois tópicos de importância emergente - a avaliação de prejuízo funcional e do pesar traumático em crianças - são também apresentados. Instrumentos culturalmente apropriados são essenciais para a identificação de problemas de saúde mental em crianças após a exposição à violência.

This paper examines challenges and current issues involved in measuring exposure to different types of violence which are associated mental health problems in children and adolescents. Standardized measures suitable for epidemiological studies, selected based on their relevance in the current literature, are briefly described and commented. The assessment of child's exposure to violence may focus on a specific event (e.g., kidnapping), a specific context (e.g., war) or even of a certain type of exposure (e.g., intrafamilial physical violence). The assessment of child mental health after exposure to violence has traditionally focused on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - most frequently measured through non-diagnostic scales. However, other mental health reactions may be present and screening as well as diagnostic instruments which may be used to assess these reactions are also described. Two issues of emerging importance - the assessment of impairment and of traumatic grief in children - are also presented. Availability of culturally appropriate instruments is a crucial step towards proper identification of child mental health problems after exposure to violence.

Measuring child exposure to violence and mental health reactions in epidemiological studies: challenges and current issues.

This paper examines challenges and current issues involved in measuring exposure to different types of violence which are associated mental health problems in children and adolescents. Standardized measures suitable for epidemiological studies, selected based on their relevance in the current literature, are briefly described and commented. The assessment of child's exposure to violence may focus on a specific event (e.g., kidnapping), a specific context (e.g., war) or even of a certain type of exposure (e.g., intrafamilial physical violence). The assessment of child mental health after exposure to violence has traditionally focused on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - most frequently measured through non-diagnostic scales. However, other mental health reactions may be present and screening as well as diagnostic instruments which may be used to assess these reactions are also described. Two issues of emerging importance - the assessment of impairment and of traumatic grief in children - are also presented. Availability of culturally appropriate instruments is a crucial step towards proper identification of child mental health problems after exposure to violence.

Gravidez na adolescência e uso freqüente de álcool e drogas no contexto familiar / Teenage pregnancy and frequent use of alcohol and drugs in the home environment

OBJETIVO: Analisar fatores individuais e familiares associados à gravidez na adolescência, incluindo uso freqüente de álcool e drogas ilícitas por familiar. MÉTODOS: Estudo de caso-controle com amostra de 408 adolescentes (13-17 anos) escolares sexualmente ativas, de Marília, SP, 2003-2004. Os casos eram 100 primigestas atendidas em programas de pré-natal de unidades de saúde e os controles, 308 estudantes que nunca haviam engravidado, provenientes de oito escolas estaduais. Foram coletados com instrumentos padronizados dados sociodemográficos, educacionais, comportamento contraceptivo, problemas de saúde mental e características familiares. A análise estatística incluiu testes de qui-quadrado e modelos de regressão logística. RESULTADOS: A baixa escolaridade paterna (p=0,01), a falta de informação sobre sexualidade e fertilização (p=0,001) e o uso de drogas ilícitas por familiar residente no domicílio (p=0,006) foram fatores de risco independentemente dos demais. Renda familiar per capita e pedir ao parceiro que usasse preservativo foram fatores de confundimento. CONCLUSÕES: O uso freqüente de drogas ilícitas por familiar residente no domicílio é um fator fortemente associado à gravidez na adolescência, independentemente dos demais. A expectativa de cursar a faculdade constitui fator de proteção, principalmente na presença de baixa escolaridade materna.

[Teenage pregnancy and frequent use of alcohol and drugs in the home environment]. / Gravidez na adolescência e uso freqüente de álcool e drogas no contexto familiar.

OBJECTIVE: To assess individual and family factors associated to teenage pregnancy, including frequent use of alcohol and illicit drugs by family members. METHODS: Case-control study conducted with a sample of 408 sexually active female adolescents (aged 13-17 years) in school from the city of Marília (Southeastern Brazil) in 2003-2004. Cases consisted of 100 primigravid teenagers assisted in prenatal care programs in health units. Controls were 308 nulligravid students from state public schools. Standardized instruments identified demographic and educational factors, contraceptive behavior, mental health problems, and family characteristics. Statistical analysis included chi-square tests and logistic regression models. RESULTS: Low paternal education (p=0.01), lack of information on sexuality and fertilization (p=0.001) and the use of illicit drugs by a resident family member (p=0.006) were independent risk factors. Family income per capita and asking the partner to use a condom were confounders. CONCLUSIONS: The frequent use of illicit drugs by a resident family member is a factor strongly associated to teenage pregnancy, regardless of other risk factors. The expectation of going to college constitutes a protective factor, mainly in the presence of low maternal education.

Problemas de saúde mental entre jovens grávidas e não-grávidas / Mental health problems among pregnant and non-pregnant youth

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência de problemas de saúde mental em adolescentes primigestas e comparar seu perfil de saúde mental com o daquelas sexualmente ativas que nunca engravidaram. MÉTODOS: Estudo de corte transversal, comparativo entre dois grupos de adolescentes de 13 a 17 anos, em Marília, Estado de São Paulo, 2003-2004. A amostra incluiu 207 primigestas atendidas em programas de pré-natal de serviços públicos municipais urbanos e 308 estudantes de escolas estaduais, sexualmente ativas, que nunca engravidaram. Foram aplicados um instrumento de rastreamento para problemas de saúde mental em adolescentes (versão brasileira do Youth Self-Report) e um questionário sobre fatores de risco para gravidez na adolescência. A análise estatística incluiu testes de qui-quadrado, exato de Fisher, U de Mann Whitney e modelos de regressão logística. RESULTADOS: Adolescentes grávidas e não-grávidas não diferiram quanto à prevalência do total de problemas de saúde mental (24,6 por cento vs. 27,3 por cento; p=0,50). Comparado às adolescentes não-grávidas, o grupo das primigestas apresentou maior prevalência de sintomas de ansiedade/depressão (24,2 por cento vs. 15,3 por cento; p=0,01) e sintomas de retraimento/depressão (13,0 por cento vs, 4,5 por cento; p<0,001), além de maior número de fumantes (21,3 por cento vs. 11,0 por cento; p=0,002). Estas diferenças foram confirmadas em modelos de regressão logística, controlados para escolaridade da mãe. CONCLUSÕES: Foram mais freqüentes os sintomas de ansiedade e depressão e uso de tabaco em adolescentes primigestas em comparação com as adolescentes não-grávidas. Esses problemas requerem especial atenção dos serviços de pré-natal a fim de evitar possíveis prejuízos para a saúde das mães e de seus filhos.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of mental health problems in primiparous adolescents and to compare their mental health profile with the profile of sexually active adolescents who have never gotten pregnant. METHODS: Cross-sectional study that compared two groups of adolescents aged 13 to 17 years from a city in Southern Brazil, 2003-2004. The sample included 207 primiparous who attended prenatal care programs in urban public services, and 308 sexually active students from state public schools who had never gotten pregnant. A screening instrument to identify mental health problems in adolescents (Brazilian version of the Youth Self-Report) was applied to the participants together with a questionnaire on risk factors for pregnancy in adolescence. Statistical analysis included Chi-square tests, Fisher's exact test, Mann Whitney's U and logistic regression models. RESULTS: Pregnant and non-pregnant adolescents did not differ in the prevalence of total mental health problems (24.6 percent vs. 27.3 percent; p=0.50). Compared to the group of never pregnant adolescents, the group of primiparous presented higher prevalence of anxious/depressive symptoms (24.2 percent vs. 15.3 percent; p=0.01) and withdrawn/depressed symptoms (13.0 percent vs., 4.5 percent; p<0.001) and there was a greater number of tobacco users (21.3 percent vs. 11.0 percent; p=0.002). These differences were confirmed by logistic regression models controlled for maternal education. CONCLUSIONS: Anxiety and depression symptoms and tobacco use were more frequent in pregnant adolescents in comparison to non-pregnant. These problems require special attention from prenatal care services in order to avoid potential damages for the health of mothers and their children.

[Mental health problems among pregnant and non-pregnant youth]. / Problemas de saúde mental entre jovens grávidas e não-grávidas.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of mental health problems in primiparous adolescents and to compare their mental health profile with the profile of sexually active adolescents who have never gotten pregnant. METHODS: Cross-sectional study that compared two groups of adolescents aged 13 to 17 years from a city in Southern Brazil, 2003-2004. The sample included 207 primiparous who attended prenatal care programs in urban public services, and 308 sexually active students from state public schools who had never gotten pregnant. A screening instrument to identify mental health problems in adolescents (Brazilian version of the Youth Self-Report) was applied to the participants together with a questionnaire on risk factors for pregnancy in adolescence. Statistical analysis included Chi-square tests, Fisher's exact test, Mann Whitney's U and logistic regression models. RESULTS: Pregnant and non-pregnant adolescents did not differ in the prevalence of total mental health problems (24.6% vs. 27.3%; p=0.50). Compared to the group of never pregnant adolescents, the group of primiparous presented higher prevalence of anxious/depressive symptoms (24.2% vs. 15.3%; p=0.01) and withdrawn/depressed symptoms (13.0% vs., 4.5%; p<0.001) and there was a greater number of tobacco users (21.3% vs. 11.0%; p=0.002). These differences were confirmed by logistic regression models controlled for maternal education. CONCLUSIONS: Anxiety and depression symptoms and tobacco use were more frequent in pregnant adolescents in comparison to non-pregnant. These problems require special attention from prenatal care services in order to avoid potential damages for the health of mothers and their children.

Severe physical punishment and mental health problems in an economically disadvantaged population of children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of severe physical punishment of children/adolescents in a low-income community, and to examine child mental health problems as a potential correlate. METHOD: This study is a Brazilian cross-sectional pilot study of the World Studies of Abuse in Family Environments. A probabilistic sample of clusters including all eligible households (women aged 15-49 years, son/daughter < 18 years) was evaluated. One mother-child pair was randomly selected per household (n = 89; attrition = 11 percent). Outcome (severe physical punishment of children/adolescents by mother/father) was defined as shaking (if age < 2 years), kicking, choking, smothering, burning/scalding/branding, beating, or threatening with weapon. Three groups of potential correlates were examined: child/adolescent (age, gender, physical/mental health); mother (education, unemployment, physical/mental health, harsh physical punishment in childhood, marital violence); father (unemployment, drunkenness). Severe marital violence was defined as kicking, hitting, beating or use of /threat to use a weapon. The following standardized questionnaires were applied by trained interviewers: World Studies of Abuse in Family Environments Core Questionnaire, Child Behavior Checklist, Self-Report Questionnaire. RESULTS: Outcome prevalence was 10.1 percent. Final logistic regression models identified two correlates: maternal harsh physical punishment in childhood (total sample, OR = 5.3, p = 0.047), and child/adolescent mental health problems (sub-sample aged 4-17 years, n = 67, OR = 9.1, p = 0.017). CONCLUSIONS: Severe physical punishment of children/adolescents is frequent in the studied community. The victims have a higher probability of becoming future perpetrators. When intrafamilial violence occurs, child/adolescent mental health may be compromised.

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência de punição física grave de crianças/adolescentes em comunidade de baixa renda e examinar problemas de saúde mental nas crianças/adolescentes como um potencial fator associado. MÉTODO: Este trabalho é um estudo piloto brasileiro de corte transversal do World Studies of Abuse in Family Environments. Foi avaliada uma amostra probabilística de conglomerados, incluindo todos os domicílios elegíveis (mulheres de 15-49 anos, filho/filha < 18 anos). Uma dupla mãe-filho foi aleatoriamente selecionada por domicílio (n = 89; perda amostral = 11 por cento). O desfecho clínico (punição física grave de crianças/adolescentes por mãe/pai) foi definido como sacudir/chacoalhar (se < 2 anos), chutar, esganar, sufocar, queimar, espancar ou ameaçar com arma. Três grupos de potenciais fatores associados foram examinados: criança/adolescente (idade, sexo, problemas de saúde física/mental); Mãe (escolaridade, desemprego, problemas de saúde física/mental, punição severa na infância, violência conjugal); Pai (desemprego, embriaguez). Violência conjugal grave foi definida como chute, soco, espancamento ou uso/ameaça de uso de arma. Os seguintes questionários padronizados foram aplicados por entrevistadores treinados: World Studies of Abuse in Family Environments Core Questionnaire, Child Behavior Checklist, Self-Report Questionnaire. RESULTADOS: Prevalência do desfecho clínico foi de 10,1 por cento. Modelos finais de regressão logística identificaram dois fatores associados: experiência materna de punição severa na infância (amostra total, OR = 5,3, p = 0,047) e problemas de saúde mental na criança/adolescente (sub-amostra de 4-17 anos, n = 67, OR = 9,1, p = 0,017). CONCLUSÕES: A punição física grave de crianças/adolescentes é freqüente na comunidade estudada, sendo que as vítimas têm probabilidade aumentada de se tornarem futuros agressores. Quando ocorre violência intrafamiliar, a saúde mental das crianças e adolescentes pode estar comprometida.

[Lifetime prevalence and help seeking behavior in physical marital violence]. / Prevalência e procura de ajuda na violência conjugal física ao longo da vida.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the lifetime prevalence of physical marital violence among women from a low-income urban community and to investigate help-seeking behavior among victims. METHODS: This is the Brazilian pilot cross-sectional study for an international multicenter study conducted in 1999, and is based on a probabilistic cluster sample from the municipality of Embu, São Paulo State. We considered as eligible women aged 15 to 49 years, living with children under age 18 years, who had lived with a husband or partner in lifetime. Information was collected using standardized questionnaires (n=86), administered by trained interviewers. We investigated three types of physical violence: severe (kicking, hitting with fist, beating, and/or use/threat to use weapon), non-severe (slapping in the absence of severe violence), and any type (severe and/or non-severe and/or other physical aggressions spontaneously referred), as well as the type of help sought by the victim (from people or institutions). We calculated frequency and 95% confidence intervals for each type of violence. RESULTS: Subjects reported slapping (32.6%), hitting with fist (17.5%), beating (15,2%), use/threat to use weapon (13.9%), and kicking (10.6%). Prevalence of marital violence was high: 22.1% (13.3-30.9) for severe violence, 10.5% (4.0-17.0) for non-severe violence, and 33.7% (32.7-34.7) for any type of violence. Victims of severe violence were more likely to seek help from the police (36.8%) or from traditional healers (21.1%) than from health care facilities (5.3%), despite the availability of these services in the area. CONCLUSIONS: Physical marital violence is frequent and severe among the population studied, and help was sought preferentially from the police or traditional healers rather than from health care services.

Prevalência e procura de ajuda na violência conjugal física ao longo da vida / Lifetime prevalence and help seeking behavior in physical marital violence

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência de violência conjugal física ao longo da vida em mulheres de comunidade urbana de baixa renda e identificar os tipos de ajuda procurados pelas vítimas. MÉTODOS: Trata-se de estudo-piloto brasileiro de corte transversal, vinculado a projeto multicêntrico internacional conduzido em 1999, com amostra probabilística de conglomerados no município de Embu, Estado de São Paulo. Foram considerados elegíveis os domicílios com mulheres de 15 a 49 anos, que residissem com filho/filha <18 anos e tivessem vivido com algum marido/companheiro ao longo da vida. Entrevistadoras treinadas aplicaram questionários padronizados (n=86). Três tipos de violência conjugal física sofrida ao longo da vida foram investigados: grave (chute, soco, espancamento e/ou uso/ameaça de uso de arma), não grave (tapa na ausência de violência grave) e algum tipo (grave e/ou não grave, além de outras formas de agressão física espontaneamente referidas) e os tipos de ajuda procurada (pessoas e instituições). Foram calculadas as freqüências dos tipos de violência e respectivos intervalos de confiança de 95 por cento. RESULTADOS: As entrevistadas referiram tapa (32,6 por cento), soco (17,5 por cento), espancamento (15,2 por cento), uso/ameaça de arma (13,9 por cento) e chute (10,6 por cento). Foram altas as taxas de prevalência de violência conjugal: grave 22,1 por cento (13,3-30,9), não grave 10,5 por cento (4,0-17,0) e algum tipo 33,7 por cento (32,7-34,7). Vítimas de violência grave procuraram ajuda mais freqüentemente da polícia/delegacia (36,8 por cento) ou de curandeiros/benzedeiras/pais de santo (21,1 por cento) que de centros de saúde (5,3 por cento), apesar da disponibilidade desses serviços na região. CONCLUSÕES: A violência conjugal física ao longo da vida é freqüente e grave na comunidade estudada, sendo que a procura de ajuda foi direcionada mais freqüentemente à polícia/delegacia ou a curandeiros/benzedeiras/pais de santo do que a centros de saúde.

Severe physical punishment and mental health problems in an economically disadvantaged population of children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of severe physical punishment of children/adolescents in a low-income community, and to examine child mental health problems as a potential correlate. METHOD: This study is a Brazilian cross-sectional pilot study of the World Studies of Abuse in Family Environments. A probabilistic sample of clusters including all eligible households (women aged 15-49 years, son/daughter < 18 years) was evaluated. One mother-child pair was randomly selected per household (n = 89; attrition = 11%). Outcome (severe physical punishment of children/adolescents by mother/father) was defined as shaking (if age